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<title>Intersectionality</title>

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Intersectionality

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li>

<li><a href="Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li>

<li><a href="Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li>

<li><a href="Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<li><a href="Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li>

<li><a href="Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li>

<li><a href="Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Nationality or citizenship</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a>

<ul><li><a href="Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Reverse_sexism" title="Reverse sexism">Reverse</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li>

<li><a href="Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li>

<li><a href="Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li>

<li><a href="Do-gooder_derogation" title="Do-gooder derogation">Anti-altruistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li>

<li><a href="Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li>

<li><a href="Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li>

<li><a href="Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li>

<li><a href="Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li>

<li><a href="Endophobia" title="Endophobia">Endophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Health</a>

<ul><li><a href="Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">mental</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">in poverty</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a></li>

<li><a href="Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li>

<li><a href="Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li>

<li><a href="Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Against men</a></li>

<li><a href="Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li>

<li><a href="Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a>

<ul><li><a href="Misogynoir" title="Misogynoir">Misogynoir</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li>

<li><a href="Outgroup_favoritism" title="Outgroup favoritism">Outgroup</a></li>

<li><a href="Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li>

<li><a href="Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li>

<li><a href="Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aryanism" title="Aryanism">Aryanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black</a>

<li><a href="Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a>

<li><a href="Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Female</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">Human</a></li>

<li><a href="Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li>

<li><a href="Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Xenophilia" title="Xenophilia">Xenophilia</a></li>

<li><a href="Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Religious_exemption" title="Religious exemption">Religious exemption</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_persecution#Persecution_of_non-believers_or_irreligion" title="Religious persecution">Persecution of non-believers</a>

<ul><li><a href="Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Blasphemy_law" title="Blasphemy law">Blasphemy law</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_censorship" title="Religious censorship">Religious censorship</a></li>

<li>In Islam

<ul><li><a href="Apostasy_in_Islam#Punishment" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li>

<li><a href="Islamic_religious_police" title="Islamic religious police">Religious police</a></li>

<li><a href="Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Antireligious_campaigns_in_China" title="Antireligious campaigns in China">In China</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Religious_exclusivism" title="Religious exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Copts" title="Persecution of Copts">Coptic Christianity</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Jehovah's_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li>

<li><a href="Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Serers" title="Persecution of Serers">Serers</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Racism" title="Racism">Race or ethnicity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Hazara_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Hazara sentiment">Hazara</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution_of_Serers" title="Persecution of Serers">Serers</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">Austrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Black_racism" title="Anti-Black racism">Black people</a>

<ul><li><a href="Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism_in_South_Africa#Racism_against_black_Africans" title="Racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Bengali_sentiment" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment">Bengali</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Han_sentiment" title="Anti-Han sentiment">Han people</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Dutch_sentiment" title="Anti-Dutch sentiment">Dutch</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-English_sentiment" title="Anti-English sentiment">English</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Estonian_sentiment" title="Anti-Estonian sentiment">Estonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">French</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">German</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Haitian_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Haitian sentiment">Haitian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Indonesian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indonesian sentiment">Indonesian</a></li>

<li>Indigenous people

<ul><li><a href="Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Israel_sentiment" title="Anti-Israel sentiment">Israeli</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a>

<ul><li><a href="Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Religious</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Yiddish_sentiment" title="Anti-Yiddish sentiment">Anti-Yiddish</a></li>

<li><a href="Zionist_antisemitism" title="Zionist antisemitism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Khmer_sentiment" title="Anti-Khmer sentiment">Khmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Montenegrin_sentiment" title="Anti-Montenegrin sentiment">Montenegrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li>

<li><a href="Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Portuguese</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Spanish_sentiment" title="Anti-Spanish sentiment">Spanish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Taiwanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Taiwanese sentiment">Taiwanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Tibetan_sentiment" title="Anti-Tibetan sentiment">Tibetan</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-white_racism" title="Anti-white racism">White people</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Algorithmic_bias" title="Algorithmic bias">Algorithmic bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li>

<li><a href="Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li>

<li><a href="Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li>

<li><a href="Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li>

<li><a href="Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li>

<li><a href="Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li>

<li><a href="Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li>

<li><a href="Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li>

<li><a href="Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li>

<li><a href="Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li>

<li><a href="Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a>

<ul><li><a href="Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li>

<li><a href="Bias_in_curricula" title="Bias in curricula">In curricula</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexism_in_academia" title="Sexism in academia">Sexism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist antisemitism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li>

<li><a href="Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li>

<li><a href="High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li>

<li><a href="Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li>

<li><a href="Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a>

<ul><li><a href="Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a></li>

<li><a href="Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersex_medical_interventions" title="Intersex medical interventions">Intersex medical interventions</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a>

<ul><li><a href="Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li>

<li><a href="Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a>

<ul><li><a href="Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li>

<li><a href="Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence against LGBTQ people</a>

<ul><li><a href="Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Violence against transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li>

<li><a href="Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li>

<li><a href="Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a>

<ul><li><a href="Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Institutional racism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li>

<li><a href="Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li>

<li><a href="International_inequality" title="International inequality">International inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li>

<li><a href="Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_against_LGBTQ%2B_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination against LGBTQ+ people">LGBTQ+</a>

<ul><li><a href="LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">grooming conspiracy theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Language_death" title="Language death">Linguicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Minority_stress" title="Minority stress">Minority stress</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_exclusion" title="Moral exclusion">Moral exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li>

<li><a href="Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a>

<ul><li><a href="Atlanta_Braves_tomahawk_chop_and_name_controversy" title="Atlanta Braves tomahawk chop and name controversy">Braves</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicago_Blackhawks_name_and_logo_controversy" title="Chicago Blackhawks name and logo controversy">Blackhawks</a></li>

<li><a href="Kansas_City_Chiefs_name_controversy" title="Kansas City Chiefs name controversy">Chiefs</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">Occupational</a>

<ul><li><a href="Occupational_apartheid" title="Occupational apartheid">Apartheid</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_inequality" title="Occupational inequality">Inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_injustice" title="Occupational injustice">Injustice</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Segregation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li>

<li><a href="Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li>

<li><a href="Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li>

<li><a href="Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political</a>

<ul><li><a href="Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li>

<li><a href="Ideological_repression" title="Ideological repression">Ideological repression</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li>

<li><a href="Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li>

<li><a href="Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_enforcement" title="Selective enforcement">Selective enforcement</a>

<ul><li><a href="Selective_prosecution" title="Selective prosecution">Selective prosecution</a></li>

<li><a href="Sentencing_disparity" title="Sentencing disparity">Sentencing disparity</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li>

<li><a href="Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_abuse" title="Structural abuse">Structural abuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural discrimination</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_evil" title="Structural evil">Structural evil</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_inequality" title="Structural inequality">Structural inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_violence" title="Structural violence">Structural violence</a></li>

<li><a href="Untermensch" title="Untermensch">Untermensch</a></li>

<li><a href="Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li>

<li><a href="Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li>

<li><a href="Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li>

<li><a href="White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li>

<li><a href="White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li>

<li><a href="Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Algorithmic_wage_discrimination" title="Algorithmic wage discrimination">Algorithmic wage discrimination</a></li>

<li><a href="Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Apartheid</a>

<ul><li><a href="Apartheid" title="Apartheid">in South Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Israeli_apartheid" title="Israeli apartheid">in Israel</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li>

<li><a href="Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li>

<li><a href="Breadwinner_model" title="Breadwinner model">Breadwinner model</a></li>

<li><a href="Conscription_and_sexism" title="Conscription and sexism">Conscription and sexism</a></li>

<li><a href="Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a>

<ul><li><a href="Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li>

<li><a href="Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">Disparate impact</a></li>

<li><a href="Fagging" title="Fagging">Fagging</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li>

<li><a href="Protecting_Women's_Private_Spaces_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act">Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li>

<li><a href="Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li>

<li><a href="Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li>

<li><a href="Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li>

<li><a href="Opposition_to_LGBTQ_rights" title="Opposition to LGBTQ rights">Opposition to LGBTQ rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li>

<li><a href="Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)</a></li>

<li><a href="Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li>

<li><a href="Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li>

<li><a href="Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li>

<li><a href="Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li>

<li><a href="Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a>

<li><a href="Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a>

<li><a href="Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li>

<li><a href="Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a>

<ul><li><a href="Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">in Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li>

<li><a href="State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li>

<li><a href="State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li>

<li><a href="White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">White Australia policy</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li>

<li><a href="Audit_study" title="Audit study">Audit study</a></li>

<li><a href="Autism_rights_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism rights movement">Autism rights movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a>

<ul><li><a href="Blind_audition" title="Blind audition">Blind audition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-sex_friendship" title="Cross-sex friendship">Cross-sex friendship</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Diversity%2C_equity%2C_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a>

<ul><li><a href="Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li>

<li><a href="Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li>

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<li><a href="Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a></li>

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<li><a href="Korenizatsiia" title="Korenizatsiia">Korenizatsiia</a></li>

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<li><a href="Mad_pride" title="Mad pride">Mad pride</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_in_the_movement_against_apartheid" title="Music in the movement against apartheid">Music in the movement against apartheid</a></li>

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<li><a href="Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li>

<li><a href="Transgender_rights_movement" title="Transgender rights movement">Transgender rights movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li></ul></div></div>

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<ul><li><a href="Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li>

<li><a href="Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li>

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<li><a href="Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li>

<li><a href="Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li>

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<li>Intersectionality</li>

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Intersectionality is an <a href="Analytic_frame" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic frame">analytical framework</a> for understanding how groups' and individuals' <a href="Social_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Social identity">social and political identities</a> result in unique combinations of <a href="Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> and <a href="Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">privilege</a>. Examples of these intersecting and overlapping factors include <a href="Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, <a href="Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>, <a href="Sex" title="Sex">sex</a>, <a href="Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>, <a href="Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnicity</a>, <a href="Social_class" title="Social class">class</a>, <a href="Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">sexuality</a>, <a href="Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, <a href="Disability" title="Disability">disability</a>, <a href="Human_physical_appearance" title="Human physical appearance">physical appearance</a>, and <a href="Ageing" title="Ageing">age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Academia.edu-1">[1]</a> These factors can lead to both <a href="Empowerment" title="Empowerment">empowerment</a> and <a href="Oppression" title="Oppression">oppression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Holley_2016-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zinn_1996-3">[3]</a>

Intersectionality arose in reaction to both <a href="White_feminism" title="White feminism">white feminism</a> and the then male-dominated <a href="Black_liberation" class="mw-redirect" title="Black liberation">black liberation</a> movement, citing the "interlocking oppressions" of <a href="Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>, <a href="Sexism" title="Sexism">sexism</a> and <a href="Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">heteronormativity</a>. It broadens the scope of the <a href="First-wave_feminism" title="First-wave feminism">first</a> and <a href="Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">second</a> <a href="Waves_of_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Waves of feminism">waves of feminism</a>, which largely focused on the experiences of women who were <a href="White_women" class="mw-redirect" title="White women">white</a>, <a href="Cisgender" title="Cisgender">cisgender</a>, and <a href="Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle-class</a>,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> to include the different experiences of <a href="Women_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Women of color">women of color</a>, <a href="Poverty_and_gender" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty and gender">poor women</a>, <a href="Immigrant_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigrant women">immigrant women</a>, and other groups, and aims to separate itself from white feminism by acknowledging women's differing experiences and identities.<a href="#cite_note-IWDA-5">[5]</a>

The term intersectionality was coined by <a href="Kimberl%C3%A9_Crenshaw" title="Kimberlé Crenshaw">Kimberlé Crenshaw</a> in 1989.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a>: 385 She describes how interlocking systems of <a href="Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a> affect those who are most <a href="Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">marginalized in society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a> Activists and academics use the framework to promote <a href="Social_equity" title="Social equity">social</a> and <a href="Political_egalitarianism" title="Political egalitarianism">political egalitarianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IWDA-5">[5]</a> Intersectionality opposes analytical systems that treat each axis of oppression in isolation. In this framework, for instance, discrimination against <a href="Black_women" title="Black women">black women</a> cannot be explained as a simple combination of <a href="Misogyny" title="Misogyny">misogyny</a> and <a href="Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>, but as something more complicated.<a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_2016a-7">[7]</a>

Intersectionality has heavily influenced modern feminism and gender studies.<a href="#cite_note-Jibrin_2015-8">[8]</a> Its proponents suggest that it promotes a more nuanced and complex approach to addressing power and oppression, rather than offering simplistic answers.<a href="#cite_note-Davis_2008-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jibrin_2015-8">[8]</a> Its critics suggest that the concept is too broad or complex,<a href="#cite_note-Downing2018-10">[10]</a> tends to reduce individuals to specific demographic factors,<a href="#cite_note-Downing2018-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Coaston_2019-11">[11]</a> is used as an ideological tool,<a href="#cite_note-intersectionality993-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Coaston_2019-11">[11]</a> and is difficult to apply in research contexts.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer2021-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bright_2015-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guan_2021-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_concepts">Key concepts</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interlocking_matrix_of_oppression">Interlocking matrix of oppression</h3></div>

<a href="Patricia_Hill_Collins" title="Patricia Hill Collins">Patricia Hill Collins</a>, author of Intersectionality as Critical Social Theory (2019), refers to the various intersections of social inequality as "vectors of oppression and privilege" that together form a <a href="Matrix_of_domination" title="Matrix of domination">matrix of domination</a>. These concepts describe how people's experiences of privilege and marginalization are shaped not just by individual differences in isolation (sexual orientation, class, race, age, and so on), but also by the effect of overlaps and interactions between these differences. The impact of a particular factor such as race can vary based on the presence or absence of other factors, such as gender or class.<a href="#cite_note-Ritzer_2013-16">[16]</a>: 204

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multiple_discrimination">Multiple discrimination</h3></div>

In the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (EU) and UK, "multiple discrimination" refers to discrimination which encompasses more than one social classification (gender, race, class, religion, sexuality, and so on). These categories, which were previously considered in isolation as defining in their own right, are now increasingly approached as different facets of a person's identity that are considered as a multidimensional whole.<a href="#cite_note-Schiek_2011-17">[17]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standpoint_theory">Standpoint theory</h3></div>

<a href="Standpoint_theory" title="Standpoint theory">Standpoint theory</a> has been described by Patricia Collins and <a href="Dorothy_E._Smith" title="Dorothy E. Smith">Dorothy E. Smith</a>. A standpoint is an individual's world perspective. Standpoint theory suggests that societal knowledge is subjective, being situated within an individual's specific geographic location and the social conditions under which it was produced.<a href="#cite_note-Mann_1997-18">[18]</a>: 392

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

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</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-style: italic"><a href="Women_of_the_World_Festival" title="Women of the World Festival">Women of the World Festival 2016</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-DW4HLgYPlA">Kimberlé Crenshaw – On Intersectionality</a> via <a href="Southbank_Centre" title="Southbank Centre">Southbank Centre</a> on <a href="YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a><a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_2016b-19">[19]</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

<a href="Black_feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Black feminist">Black feminist</a> scholar <a href="Kimberl%C3%A9_Crenshaw" title="Kimberlé Crenshaw">Kimberlé Crenshaw</a> introduced the concept of intersectionality in a pair of essays published in 1989 and 1991, within the subject of legal studies.<a href="#cite_note-Duran_2020-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_1991-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_1989-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a> Intersectionality originated in <a href="Critical_race_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical race studies">critical race studies</a> and considers the way different forms of oppression (such as racism, sexism, classism, homophobia, and so on) can combine and interact to produce multifaceted systems of oppression and privilege that shape the experiences of individuals. Crenshaw used intersectionality to demonstrate how these intersecting systems of oppression disadvantaged minorities in the workplace and society.<a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_1991-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cho,_Crenshaw_&_McCall_2013-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precursors_to_intersectionality">Precursors to intersectionality</h3></div>

The historical exclusion of Black women from the feminist movement in the United States resulted in many Black 19th- and 20th-century feminists—including <a href="Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a>, <a href="Anna_J._Cooper" title="Anna J. Cooper">Anna J. Cooper</a>, <a href="Maria_W._Stewart" title="Maria W. Stewart">Maria W. Stewart</a>, <a href="Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a> and others—challenging their historical exclusion from earlier feminist movements, which were primarily led by white middle-class women who suggested that women were a homogeneous category who shared the same life experiences.<a href="#cite_note-Davis_1983-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Collins_2015-25">[25]</a>

In her 1851 "<a href="Ain't_I_a_Woman%3F" title="Ain't I a Woman?">Ain't I a Woman?</a>" speech, Sojourner Truth spoke from her racialized position as a formerly enslaved woman to critique essentialist notions of <a href="Femininity" title="Femininity">femininity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brah-26">[26]</a> She highlighted the differences between the treatment of white and Black women in society, saying that white women were often regarded as emotional and delicate, while Black women were stereotyped as brutish and subjected to both gendered and racialized abuse. These observations were largely dismissed by many white feminists of the time, who prioritized the suffrage movement over addressing the intersecting oppressions faced by Black women.<a href="#cite_note-Truth-27">[27]</a>

Early writers and intellectuals such as Cooper, Stewart, Wells, <a href="Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Stuart Hall</a> and Nira Yuval-Davis also emphasized the interconnected nature of racial and gender oppressions, prefiguring intersectionality.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Collins_2015-25">[25]</a> In her 1892 essay "The Colored Woman's Office", Cooper identified Black women as crucial agents of social change, emphasizing their unique understanding of multiple forms of oppression.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper_1892-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a> In Cooper's publication of "A Voice from the South" (1892), she emphasized the importance of considering the "whole race" by focusing on the lived experiences of Black women. Cooper said that their oppression was just not racial or gender-based but a complex combination of the two.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper_South-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a>

<a href="W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> theorized that the intersectional paradigms of race, class, and nation might explain specific aspects of the Black political economy. <a href="Patricia_Hill_Collins" title="Patricia Hill Collins">Patricia Hill Collins</a> writes: "Du Bois saw race, class, and nation not primarily as personal identity categories but as social hierarchies that shaped African-American access to status, poverty, and power."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins200044-30">[30]</a> Du Bois nevertheless omitted gender from his theory and considered it more of a personal identity category.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a> In 1947, <a href="Pauli_Murray" title="Pauli Murray">Pauli Murray</a> used the phrase "Jane Crow" to describe the compounded challenges faced by black women in the Jim Crow south.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_wave_feminism">Second wave feminism</h3></div>

<a href="Patricia_Hill_Collins" title="Patricia Hill Collins">Patricia Hill Collins</a> describes the many proponents of Black, Asian American, Latina, Indigenous, and <a href="Chicana_feminism" title="Chicana feminism">Chicana feminism</a> active in North America between 1960s and 1980s as instrumental in the development of intersectionality.<a href="#cite_note-Collins_2015-25">[25]</a> In the 1970s and 1980s, a number of non-Western feminists of color also articulated ideas similar to intersectionality, such as <a href="Awa_Thiam" title="Awa Thiam">Awa Thiam</a>, <a href="Chandra_Talpade_Mohanty" title="Chandra Talpade Mohanty">Chandra Talpade Mohanty</a>, <a href="Gayatri_Chakravorty_Spivak" title="Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak">Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak</a>, <a href="Chela_Sandoval" title="Chela Sandoval">Chela Sandoval</a>, and others.<a href="#cite_note-Mays_2018-32">[32]</a>

In 1974, a group of Black feminists organized the <a href="Combahee_River_Collective" title="Combahee River Collective">Combahee River Collective</a> in <a href="Boston%2C_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston, Massachusetts</a>, in response to what they felt was an alienation from both white feminism and the male-dominated <a href="Black_liberation_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Black liberation movement">Black liberation movement</a>, citing the "interlocking oppressions" of racism, sexism and <a href="Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">heteronormativity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The collective developed the concept of "simultaneity": the simultaneous influences of race, class, gender, and sexuality, which informed the members' lives and their resistance to oppression.<a href="#cite_note-Wiegman-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_2017-35">[35]</a> The Combahee River Collective advanced an understanding of African-American experiences that challenged analyses emerging from Black and male-centered social movements, as well as those from mainstream cisgender, white, middle-class, heterosexual feminists.<a href="#cite_note-Norman_2007-36">[36]</a>

In <a href="DeGraffenreid_v._General_Motors" title="DeGraffenreid v. General Motors">DeGraffenreid v. General Motors</a> (1976), Emma DeGraffenreid and four other Black female auto workers alleged compound <a href="Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">employment discrimination</a> as Black women resulting from <a href="General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a>' seniority-based system of layoffs. The courts weighed the allegations of race and gender discrimination separately, finding that the employment of African-American men in the factory disproved racial discrimination, and the employment of white women in the offices disproved <a href="Gender_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender discrimination">gender discrimination</a>. The court declined to consider compound discrimination, and dismissed the case.<a href="#cite_note-HoSang-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adewunmi-38">[38]</a> Crenshaw said that in cases such as this, the courts have tended to ignore Black women's unique experiences by treating them as only women or only Black.<a href="#cite_note-Coaston_2019-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_1989-22">[22]</a>: 141–143

In 1978, Senegalese write Awa Thiam wrote of the "threefold oppression" of racism, sexism and class oppression which impacted African women:<a href="#cite_note-Mays_2018-32">[32]</a>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The Black woman of Africa suffers threefold oppression: by virtue of her sex, she is dominated by man in a patriarchal society; by virtue of her class she is at

the mercy of capitalist exploitation; by virtue of her race she suffers from the

appropriation of her country by colonial or neo-colonial powers. Sexism, racism, class division; three plagues.<a href="#cite_note-Mays_2018-32">[32]</a></blockquote>

By the 1980s, as <a href="Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">second-wave feminism</a> began to recede, scholars of color including <a href="Audre_Lorde" title="Audre Lorde">Audre Lorde</a>, <a href="Gloria_E._Anzald%C3%BAa" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloria E. Anzaldúa">Gloria E. Anzaldúa</a> and <a href="Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a> brought their lived experiences into academic discussion, shaping what would become known as "intersectionality" within race, class, and gender studies in U.S. academia.<a href="#cite_note-Collins_2015-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Buikema_2009-39">[39]</a> Scholar <a href="Bell_hooks" title="Bell hooks">bell hooks</a>, in her groundbreaking work Ain't I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism (1981), described the exclusion of Black women's experiences from mainstream feminist narratives and underscored the importance of addressing race, gender, and class as intersecting systems of oppression.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> For hooks, the emergence of intersectionality "challenged the notion that 'gender' was the primary factor determining a woman's fate".<a href="#cite_note-hooks_2014-41">[41]</a> Inspired by Lorde, <a href="Afro-Germans" title="Afro-Germans">Afro-German</a> women also began to explore issues of overlapping oppression in Germany.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>

Also in 1981, <a href="Cherr%C3%ADe_Moraga" title="Cherríe Moraga">Cherríe Moraga</a> and Gloria Anzaldúa published This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color, an anthology centering the experiences of women of color, which challenges <a href="White_feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="White feminist">white feminists</a> who made claims to solidarity based on <a href="Sisterhood_Is_Powerful" title="Sisterhood Is Powerful">sisterhood</a>, calling for greater recognition of their multiple identities.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Among other things, works in the anthology call for greater attention to race-related subjectivities in feminism, and ultimately laid the foundation for <a href="Third_wave_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Third wave feminism">third wave feminism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

In 1988, Deborah K. King published the article "Multiple Jeopardy, Multiple Consciousness: The Context of a Black Feminist Ideology". In it, King addresses what soon became the foundation for intersectionality, saying, "Black women have long recognized the special circumstances of our lives in the United States: the commonalities that we share with all women, as well as the bonds that connect us to the men of our race".<a href="#cite_note-King1988-45">[45]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demarginalizing_the_Intersection_of_Race_and_Sex">Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex</h3></div>

In 1989, <a href="Kimberl%C3%A9_Crenshaw" title="Kimberlé Crenshaw">Kimberlé Crenshaw</a> coined the term intersectionality as a way to help explain the oppression of <a href="African-American_women" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American women">African-American women</a> in her essay "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Anti-discrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics".<a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_1989-22">[22]</a> Crenshaw's term has risen to the forefront of national conversations about racial justice, <a href="Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">identity politics</a>, and policing—and over the years has helped shape legal discussions.<a href="#cite_note-Two_Decades-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adewunmi-38">[38]</a> In her work, Crenshaw discusses <a href="Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">Black feminism</a>, arguing that the experience of being a Black woman cannot be understood in terms independent of either being Black or a woman. Rather, it must include interactions between the two identities, which, she adds, should frequently reinforce one another.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas_2004-47">[47]</a>

In order to demonstrate that women of color have different experiences to white women, Crenshaw explores <a href="Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a> and <a href="Rape" title="Rape">rape</a> committed by men, which for women of color consist of a combination of both racism and sexism. She says that because the discourses designed to address either race or sex do not consider both at the same time, women of color are marginalized within both of them a result.<a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_1991-21">[21]</a>

Crenshaw also delves into several legal cases that exhibit the concept of political intersectionality and how anti-discrimination law has been historically limited, such as DeGraffenreid v Motors, Moore v Hughes Helicopter Inc., and Payne v Travenol. There are two commonalities, amongst others, between these cases: firstly, each respective court's inability to fully understand the multidimensionality of the plaintiff's intersecting identities, and the limited ability that the plaintiffs had to argue their case due to restrictions created by the very legislation that exists in opposition to discrimination such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.<a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_1989-22">[22]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div>

<table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #DF2B6A; border-spacing:0.2em 0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist history</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_history" title="Women's history">Women's history</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">American</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_women_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of women in the United Kingdom">British</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_women_in_Canada" title="History of women in Canada">Canadian</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_women_in_Germany" title="History of women in Germany">German</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #DF2B6A;;padding-top:0.2em;">

Waves</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

<ul><li><a href="First-wave_feminism" title="First-wave feminism">First</a></li>

<li><a href="Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second</a></li>

<li><a href="Third-wave_feminism" title="Third-wave feminism">Third</a></li>

<li><a href="Fourth-wave_feminism" title="Fourth-wave feminism">Fourth</a></li></ul>

</div></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #DF2B6A;">

Timelines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_women's_suffrage" title="Timeline of women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_first_women's_suffrage_in_majority-Muslim_countries" title="Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries">Muslim countries</a></li>

</div>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_women's_legal_rights_(other_than_voting)" title="Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)">Other women's rights</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #DF2B6A;">

<a href="Women's_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a> by country</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

<ul><li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_Austria" title="Women's suffrage in Austria">Austria</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_Australia" title="Women's suffrage in Australia">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_Canada" title="Women's suffrage in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_Colombia" title="Women's suffrage in Colombia">Colombia</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_India" title="Women's suffrage in India">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_Japan" title="Women's suffrage in Japan">Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_Kuwait" title="Women's suffrage in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_Liechtenstein" title="Women's suffrage in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_New_Zealand" title="Women's suffrage in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>

<li>Spain

<ul><li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_the_Spanish_Second_Republic_period" title="Women's suffrage in the Spanish Second Republic period">Second Republic</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_Francoist_Spain_and_the_democratic_transition" title="Women's suffrage in Francoist Spain and the democratic transition">Francoist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_Switzerland" title="Women's suffrage in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>

<ul><li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Women's suffrage in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_Wales" title="Women's suffrage in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">United States</a>

<ul><li><a href="Women's_suffrage_in_states_of_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in states of the United States">states</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td>

</tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Feminist_thought">Intersectional variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

<li><a href="Lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lesbian_feminism#Lesbian_of_color_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian of color</a></li>

<li><a href="Radical_lesbianism" title="Radical lesbianism">Radical lesbianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_separatism#Lesbian_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sex-positive</a></li>

<li><a href="Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">Transfeminism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Postgenderism" title="Postgenderism">Postgenderism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vegetarian_ecofeminism" title="Vegetarian ecofeminism">Vegetarian ecofeminism</a></li></ul>

</div></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #DF2B6A;;padding-top:0.2em;">

<a href="Socialist_feminism" title="Socialist feminism">Socialist</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

<ul><li><a href="Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">Anarchist</a>

<ul><li><a href="Queer_anarchism" title="Queer anarchism">Queer</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Jineology" title="Jineology">Jineology</a></li>

<li><a href="Marxist_feminism" title="Marxist feminism">Marxist</a>

<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Marxist_feminist_critical_theory">Critical theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Standpoint_feminism" title="Standpoint feminism">Standpoint</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Materialist_feminism" title="Materialist feminism">Materialist</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ecofeminism#Materialist_Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Postcolonial_feminism" title="Postcolonial feminism">Postcolonial</a>

<ul><li><a href="Global_feminism" title="Global feminism">Global</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnational_feminism" title="Transnational feminism">Transnational</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Xenofeminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenofeminism">Xenofeminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Jineoloji" class="mw-redirect" title="Jineoloji">Jineoloji</a></li></ul>

</div></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #DF2B6A;;padding-top:0.2em;">

<a href="Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multicultural</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

<ul><li><a href="Africana_womanism" title="Africana womanism">Africana womanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">Black</a>

<li><a href="Lesbian_feminism#Black_lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a></li>

<li><a href="Ratchet_feminism" title="Ratchet feminism">Ratchet</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chicana_feminism" title="Chicana feminism">Chicana</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lesbian_feminism#Chicana_lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Indigenous_feminism" title="Indigenous feminism">Indigenous</a>

<ul><li><a href="Native_American_feminism" title="Native American feminism">Native American</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Multiracial_feminist_theory" title="Multiracial feminist theory">Multiracial</a></li>

<li><a href="Romani_feminism" title="Romani feminism">Romani</a></li>

<li><a href="Womanism" title="Womanism">Womanism</a></li></ul>

</div></td>

</tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Other variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Anti-abortion_feminism" title="Anti-abortion feminism">Anti-abortion</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservative_variants_of_feminism" title="Conservative variants of feminism">Conservative</a></li>

<li><a href="Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li>

<li><a href="Femonationalism" title="Femonationalism">Femonationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal</a></li>

<li><a href="Maternal_feminism" title="Maternal feminism">Maternal</a></li>

<li><a href="Postfeminism" title="Postfeminism">Postfeminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reactionary_feminism" title="Reactionary feminism">Reactionary</a></li>

<li><a href="State_feminism" title="State feminism">State</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carceral_feminism" title="Carceral feminism">Carceral</a></li>

<li><a href="Imperial_feminism" title="Imperial feminism">Imperial</a></li>

<li><a href="Embedded_feminism" title="Embedded feminism">Embedded</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gender-critical_feminism" title="Gender-critical feminism">Gender-critical or trans-exclusionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Victim_feminism" title="Victim feminism">Victim</a></li>

<li><a href="White_feminism" title="White feminism">White</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Religious variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Atheist_feminism" title="Atheist feminism">Atheist</a></li>

<li><a href="Buddhist_feminism" title="Buddhist feminism">Buddhist</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Christian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mormon_feminism" title="Mormon feminism">Mormon</a></li>

<li><a href="Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li>

<li><a href="Asian_feminist_theology" title="Asian feminist theology">Asian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Neopagan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dianic_Wicca" title="Dianic Wicca">Dianic Wicca</a></li>

<li><a href="Reclaiming_(Neopaganism)" title="Reclaiming (Neopaganism)">Reclaiming</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecofeminism#Spiritual_Ecofeminism/Cultural_Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_India#Hindu_community" title="Feminism in India">Hindu</a></li>

<li><a href="Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish</a>

<ul><li><a href="Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Feminist_movements_and_ideologies" title="Feminist movements and ideologies">Movements and ideologies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="4B_movement" title="4B movement">4B movement</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="White_Feather_Campaign" title="White Feather Campaign">White Feather Campaign</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytical</a></li>

<li><a href="Fantifa" title="Fantifa">Anti-fascist</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-pornography_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-pornography feminism">Anti-pornography</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberfeminism" title="Cyberfeminism">Cyber</a>

<li><a href="Networked_feminism" title="Networked feminism">Networked</a></li>

<li><a href="Difference_feminism" title="Difference feminism">Difference</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cultural_feminism" title="Cultural feminism">Cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Eugenic_feminism" title="Eugenic feminism">Eugenic</a></li>

<li><a href="Individualist_feminism" title="Individualist feminism">Individualist</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Equality_feminism" title="Equality feminism">Equality</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_feminism" title="Social feminism">Social</a>

<ul><li><a href="Labor_feminism" title="Labor feminism">Labor</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Libertarian_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian feminism">Libertarian</a></li>

<li><a href="Lipstick_feminism" title="Lipstick feminism">Lipstick</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lipstick_feminism#Stiletto_feminism" title="Lipstick feminism">Stiletto</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Post-structural_feminism" title="Post-structural feminism">Post-structural</a>

<ul><li><a href="Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">Postmodern</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Radical_feminism" title="Radical feminism">Radical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Political_lesbianism" title="Political lesbianism">Political lesbianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Technofeminism" title="Technofeminism">Technofeminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_liberation_movement" title="Women's liberation movement">Women's liberation</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;">

<ul><li><a href="Antinaturalism_(politics)" title="Antinaturalism (politics)">Antinaturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Choice_feminism" title="Choice feminism">Choice feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_labor" title="Cognitive labor">Cognitive labor</a></li>

<li><a href="Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_literature" title="Feminist literature">Literature</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_children's_literature" title="Feminist children's literature">Children's literature</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity (politics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Diversity%2C_equity%2C_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_effects_on_society" title="Feminist effects on society">Effects on society</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_and_equality" title="Feminism and equality">Equality</a></li>

<li><a href="Female_education" title="Female education">Female education</a></li>

<li><a href="Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Femonationalism" title="Femonationalism">Femonationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_culture" title="Feminism in culture">Feminism in culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">Feminist movement</a>

<ul><li><a href="African-American_women's_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">African-American women's suffrage movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_art_movement" title="Feminist art movement">Art movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_views_on_striptease" title="Feminist views on striptease">Feminist stripper</a></li>

<li><a href="Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Formal equality</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_quota" title="Gender quota">Gender quota</a></li>

<li><a href="Girl_power" title="Girl power">Girl power</a></li>

<li><a href="Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a></li>

<li><a href="Ideal_womanhood" title="Ideal womanhood">Ideal womanhood</a></li>

<li><a href="Invisible_labor" title="Invisible labor">Invisible labor</a></li>

<li><a href="Internalized_sexism" title="Internalized sexism">Internalized sexism</a></li>

<li>International <a href="International_Day_of_the_Girl_Child" title="International Day of the Girl Child">Girl's Day</a> and <a href="International_Women's_Day" title="International Women's Day">Women's Day</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_language_reform" title="Feminist language reform">Language reform</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_capitalism" title="Feminist capitalism">Feminist capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li>

<li><a href="Likeability_trap" title="Likeability trap">Likeability trap</a></li>

<li><a href="Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">Male privilege</a></li>

<li><a href="Matriarchal_religion" title="Matriarchal religion">Matriarchal religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_and_media" title="Feminism and media">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Men_in_feminism" title="Men in feminism">Men in feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a>

<ul><li><a href="Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Trans</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_views_on_the_Oedipus_complex" title="Feminist views on the Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Antifeminism" title="Antifeminism">Opposition to feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pro-feminism" title="Pro-feminism">Pro-feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Protofeminism" title="Protofeminism">Protofeminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Purplewashing" title="Purplewashing">Purplewashing</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_and_racism" title="Feminism and racism">Racism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_justice" title="Reproductive justice">Reproductive justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_workers'_rights" title="Sex workers' rights">Sex workers' rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">Sexual objectification</a></li>

<li><a href="Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">Substantive equality</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxic_masculinity" title="Toxic masculinity">Toxic masculinity</a></li>

<li><a href="Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li>

<li><a href="Triple_oppression" title="Triple oppression">Triple oppression</a></li>

<li><a href="Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li>

<li><a href="War_on_women" title="War on women">War on women</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a></li>

<li><a href="Women-only_space" title="Women-only space">Women-only space</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_health" title="Women's health">Women's health</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">Women in the workforce</a></li></ul>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Outlooks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

<ul><li><a href="Abortion-rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion-rights">Abortion-rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Bicycling_and_feminism" title="Bicycling and feminism">Bicycling and feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Bodily_integrity" title="Bodily integrity">Bodily integrity</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_marriage" title="Criticism of marriage">Criticism of marriage</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_views_on_BDSM" title="Feminist views on BDSM">Views on BDSM</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_views_on_pornography" title="Feminist views on pornography">Views on pornography</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_views_on_the_sex_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist views on the sex industry">Views on prostitution</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_views_on_sexuality" title="Feminist views on sexuality">Views on sexual orientation</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_views_on_sexuality" title="Feminist views on sexuality">Views on sexuality</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_views_on_transgender_topics" title="Feminist views on transgender topics">Views on transgender topics</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_and_reproductive_health_and_rights" title="Sexual and reproductive health and rights">Sexual and reproductive health and rights</a></li>

<li><a href="SCUM_Manifesto" title="SCUM Manifesto">SCUM Manifesto</a></li></ul>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_mainstreaming" title="Gender mainstreaming">Gender mainstreaming</a></li>

<li><a href="Gynocentrism" title="Gynocentrism">Gynocentrism</a></li>

<li><a href="Kyriarchy" title="Kyriarchy">Kyriarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Matriarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_studies" title="Women's studies">Women's studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Men's_studies" title="Men's studies">Men's studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%89criture_f%C3%A9minine" title="Écriture féminine">Écriture féminine</a></li></ul>

</div></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #DF2B6A;">

Areas of study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_and_modern_architecture" title="Feminism and modern architecture">Architecture</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_art_criticism" title="Feminist art criticism">Art criticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_literary_criticism" title="Feminist literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_film_theory" title="Feminist film theory">Film theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_science_fiction" title="Feminist science fiction">Science fiction</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_biology" title="Feminist biology">Biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_theory_in_composition_studies" title="Feminist theory in composition studies">Composition studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Criminology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_pathways_perspective" title="Feminist pathways perspective">Pathways perspective</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Geography</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">International relations</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_constructivism" title="Feminist constructivism">Constructivism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Legal theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_pedagogy" title="Feminist pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Philosophy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_empiricism" title="Feminist empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Ethics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_justice_ethics" title="Feminist justice ethics">Justice ethics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_existentialism" title="Feminist existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_philosophy_of_science" title="Feminist philosophy of science">science</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_political_ecology" title="Feminist political ecology">Political ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Political theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_pornography" title="Feminist pornography">Pornography</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Psychology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_therapy" title="Feminist therapy">Therapy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_revisionist_mythology" title="Feminist revisionist mythology">Revisionist mythology</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_sexology" title="Feminist sexology">Sexology</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">Technoscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Theology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">womanist theology</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td>

</tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Women's_rights_by_country" title="Women's rights by country">By continent/country</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="African_feminism" title="African feminism">Africa</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feminism_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Egypt" title="Feminism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ghana">Ghana</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Senegal" title="Feminism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_South_Africa" title="Feminism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Albania">Albania</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Australia" title="Feminism in Australia">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Bangladesh" title="Feminism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Canada" title="Feminism in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_Denmark" title="Women in Denmark">Denmark</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Finland">Finland</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_France" title="Feminism in France">France</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Germany" title="Feminism in Germany">Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Greece" title="Feminism in Greece">Greece</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_India" title="Feminism in India">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Indonesia" title="Feminism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Feminism in the Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Israel" title="Feminism in Israel">Israel</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Italy" title="Feminism in Italy">Italy</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Japan" title="Feminism in Japan">Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Latin_America" title="Feminism in Latin America">Latin America</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feminism_in_Argentina" title="Feminism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Brazil" title="Feminism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Chile" title="Feminism in Chile">Chile</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Haiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Haiti">Haiti</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Mexico" title="Feminism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Women in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_Lebanon" title="Women in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Malaysia" title="Feminism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Nepal" title="Feminism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Feminism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_New_Zealand" title="Feminism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Norway" title="Feminism in Norway">Norway</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Pakistan" title="Feminism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Poland" title="Feminism in Poland">Poland</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Russia" title="Feminism in Russia">Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Feminism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_South_Korea" title="Feminism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Sweden" title="Feminism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">Syria</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Taiwan" title="Feminism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Thailand" title="Feminism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_Vietnam" title="Women in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_Ukraine" title="Women in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Feminism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminism_in_the_United_States" title="Feminism in the United States">United States</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">History of women</a></li></ul></li></ul>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists and categories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #DF2B6A;">

Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

<ul><li><a href="Index_of_feminism_articles" title="Index of feminism articles">Articles</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_feminists" title="List of feminists">Feminists</a>

<ul><li>by nationality</li></ul></li>

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<ul><li><a href="List_of_American_feminist_literature" title="List of American feminist literature">American feminist literature</a></li>

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<li><a href="List_of_feminist_anthems" title="List of feminist anthems">Feminist songs</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Conservative_variants_of_feminism" title="Conservative variants of feminism">Conservative feminisms</a></li>

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<li><a href="List_of_feminist_rhetoricians" title="List of feminist rhetoricians">Feminist rhetoricians</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Jewish_feminists" title="List of Jewish feminists">Jewish feminists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Muslim_feminists" title="List of Muslim feminists">Muslim feminists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_feminist_parties" title="List of feminist parties">Feminist parties</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_suffragists_and_suffragettes" title="List of suffragists and suffragettes">Suffragists and suffragettes</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_women's_rights_activists" title="List of women's rights activists">Women's rights activists</a></li>

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Categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;">

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<a href="Portal%3AFeminism" title="Portal:Feminism">Feminism portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"></td></tr></tbody></table>

The concept of intersectionality was intended to illuminate dynamics that have often been overlooked by feminist theory and movements.<a href="#cite_note-McCall_2005-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thompson_2002-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Racial inequality was largely ignored by first-wave feminism, which was primarily concerned with achieving political equality between white men and white women,<a href="#cite_note-Fixmer-Oraiz-51">[51]</a>: 59–60 and second-wave feminism, which sought to dismantle sexism relating to the perceived domestic purpose of women.<a href="#cite_note-Grady-52">[52]</a> <a href="Third-wave_feminism" title="Third-wave feminism">Third-wave feminism</a>—which emerged shortly after the term intersectionality was coined—attempted to address the lack of attention given to race, class, sexual orientation, and gender identity in early feminist movements.<a href="#cite_note-Fixmer-Oraiz-51">[51]</a>: 72–73

The term became more widely used in the 1990s, particularly following further development of Crenshaw's work by sociologist <a href="Patricia_Hill_Collins" title="Patricia Hill Collins">Patricia Hill Collins</a>. Collins says Crenshaw's term replaced her own previous coinage "Black feminist thought", and "increased the general applicability of her theory from African American women to all women".<a href="#cite_note-Mann_2005-53">[53]</a>: 61 Collins sought to create frameworks to think about intersectionality, rather than expanding on the theory itself. She identified three main branches of study within intersectionality: one dealing with the background, ideas, issues, conflicts, and debates within intersectionality; another that seeks to apply intersectionality as an analytical strategy to examine how various <a href="Social_institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Social institutions">social institutions</a> might perpetuate social inequality; and one that uses intersectionality to bring social change through <a href="Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a> initiatives.<a href="#cite_note-Collins_2015-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a>

Though intersectionality began with the exploration of the interplay between sexist and racist oppression, with classist and homophobic/biphobic oppression sometimes included, the theory has since expanded to cover other forms of oppression.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Additionally, intersectionality has been used to address the differences between women of color even regarding shared experiences such as racism. For example, <a href="Asian_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian American">Asian American</a> women have reported intersectional experiences that set them apart from other women of color as well as Asian men.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <a href="Gloria_Wekker" title="Gloria Wekker">Gloria Wekker</a> says the Chicana feminist work of Gloria E. Anzaldúa is important because "existent categories for identity are strikingly not dealt with in separate or mutually exclusive terms, but are always referred to in relation to one another".<a href="#cite_note-Buikema_2009-39">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caste">Caste</h3></div>

In South Asia, Dalit feminists have drawn on intersectional analysis to emphasize the compounded marginalization faced by Dalit women, who experience both caste-based and gender-based discrimination. Scholars such as <a href="Thenmozhi_Soundararajan" title="Thenmozhi Soundararajan">Thenmozhi Soundararajan</a> argue in their works like The Trauma of Caste that mainstream feminist frameworks often neglect these intersecting oppressions, calling for a more nuanced analysis that recognizes caste as a central axis of inequality.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Class">Class</h3></div>

Collins has used a <a href="Marxist_feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist feminist">Marxist feminist</a> approach to apply intersectional principles to study Black women's poverty and what she calls the "work/family nexus". In her 2000 article "Black Political Economy", she suggests the intersections of <a href="Consumer_racism" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer racism">consumer racism</a>, gender hierarchies, and disadvantages in the labor market can be centered on Black women's unique experiences—such as the suppression of Black women's economic mobility due to inheritance and <a href="Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">anti-miscegenation laws</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Browne_&_Misra_2003-59">[59]</a>: 506 <a href="Chiara_Bottici" title="Chiara Bottici">Chiara Bottici</a> has also incorporated elements of <a href="Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">anarcha-feminism</a> to counter criticisms that intersectionality is incomplete or fails to recognize the specificity of women's oppression, saying "that there is something specific about the oppression of women and that in order to fight it you have to fight all other forms of oppression."<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonialism">Colonialism</h3></div>

In Latin America, <a href="Maria_Lugones" title="Maria Lugones">Maria Lugones</a> introduced the concept of the "coloniality of gender" to explore how colonial histories intersect across race, gender, and class, creating unique forms of oppression for Indigenous and Afro-descendant women. Her work reveals the imposition of Eurocentric gender norms during colonial rule, which marginalized non-Western gender identities and social structures.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="Mara_Viveros_Vigoya" title="Mara Viveros Vigoya">Mara Viveros Vigoya</a> also provides a Latin American perspective which considers the need to address colonialism as part of an intersectional approach.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms">Forms</h2></div>

In "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color", Kimberlé Crenshaw outlines three different forms of intersectionality to describe the violence that women experience: structural, political, and representational intersectionality.<a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_1991-21">[21]</a> These frameworks are still used today.<a href="#cite_note-Evans2022-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cho_2013-64">[64]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_intersectionality">Structural intersectionality</h3></div>

Structural intersectionality considers how people are marginalized by the combined effects of different overlapping and reinforcing forms of systemic, institutional, and structural inequality.<a href="#cite_note-Evans2022-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cho_2013-64">[64]</a>: 797 <a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_1991-21">[21]</a>: 1245 Crenshaw uses this approach to analyze the structural classism, racism, and sexism that combine to make women of color more vulnerable to domestic violence and rape, as well as how a failure to recognise the overlapping of these structures has resulted in inadequate interventions for such women.<a href="#cite_note-Pedulla2014-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cho_2013-64">[64]</a>: 797

In 2020, Alesha Durfee used the structural intersectional approach to examine the inability of "multiply marginalized" people, such as women of color, to file for, obtain, serve, and enforce protective orders in domestic violence situations, and suggested that the systems in place replicated wider social inequalities. Durfee said the basis for such inequalities were "policies and procedures based on inappropriate assumptions about individuals" that do not account for the complexity of their lived experiences.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> In 2021, a group of researchers using a structural intersectional approach found that the impact of overlapping structural racism, sexism, and income inequality in U.S. healthcare varied considerably across the country but was most consistently associated with poor health in Black women.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_intersectionality">Political intersectionality</h3></div>

Political intersectionality considers how activist or political movements can marginalize people with multiple intersecting identities by focusing on "allegedly universal, single-axis approaches" which either exclude them or else ignore or downplay the complexities of their experiences.<a href="#cite_note-Cho_2013-64">[64]</a>: 800 <a href="#cite_note-Evans2022-63">[63]</a> Black feminists such as Crenshaw and Deborah K. King have used political intersectionality to explore the separation of race- and gender-based discourse within the anti-racist and feminist movements, which requires women of color to prioritise their interests as either "people of color" or "women", rather than reflecting that they are both.<a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_1991-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-King1988-45">[45]</a> This framework has since been applied to consider other intersections, such as class, sexuality, and disability.<a href="#cite_note-Pedulla2014-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-Evans2022-63">[63]</a>

Sameena Azhar et al. have argued that <a href="Asian_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian American">Asian Americans</a> are subject to myths that they "do not experience racialized, sexualized, and gendered <a href="Microaggressions" class="mw-redirect" title="Microaggressions">microaggressions</a>". They suggest these attitudes serve to socially and politically delegitimize Asian Americans' experiences of racism. They suggest that stereotypes of Asian Americans that frame their sexuality "in ways that maintain the social and political dominance of white men" affect Asian American men and women differently. For example, Asian American women were often perceived as romantically desirable and overly-sexualized, while their male counterparts were perceived as asexual.<a href="#cite_note-Azhar_2021-69">[69]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Representational_intersectionality">Representational intersectionality</h3></div>

Representational intersectionality is the study of how intersecting identities (e.g., race, gender, class, sexuality) are depicted in cultural narratives and media, and how this creates or reinforces overlapping forms of marginalization.<a href="#cite_note-Evans2022-63">[63]</a> Crenshaw used this framework to analyze how stereotypical portrayals of women of color in popular culture often perpetuate harm against them.<a href="#cite_note-Crenshaw_1991-21">[21]</a> Subsequent analysis of representation in popular culture has also used an international approach.<a href="#cite_note-:0-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Matsuda1993-71">[71]</a>

Analyzing film and television, <a href="Bell_hooks" title="Bell hooks">bell hooks</a> suggests women of color are frequently portrayed as hyper-sexualized, "sassy", or docile tropes—such as the "fiery Latina', "submissive Asian", "<a href="Angry_black_woman" title="Angry black woman">angry Black woman</a>"— which erase the full complexity of their intersecting identities, perpetuate oppressive societal attitudes and norms (such as sexism, racism, and classism), and even lead to violence against women of color.<a href="#cite_note-:0-70">[70]</a> According to Mari J. Matsuda and others, these tropes also appear in advertising and marketing campaigns, which often portray women of color in "exotic" or "hyper-feminine" terms and thereby reinforce stereotypes of them as commodities or objects of consumption.<a href="#cite_note-Matsuda1993-71">[71]</a>

In their analysis of news media, including over two million articles published by <a href="Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a> and <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> between 2000–2022, Elliot Ash and others found that news stories involving <a href="Women_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Women of color">women of color</a>, <a href="LGBTQ" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBTQ">LGBTQ</a>+ people, and other minority groups often used sensational or stereotypical lenses, ignoring socioeconomic contexts or broader <a href="Structural_inequality" title="Structural inequality">structural inequalities</a>, and effectively "flattening" the narrative of complex identities. They especially noted tropes of criminality, cleanliness, and invasion about immigrants, single parents, and <a href="Transgender" title="Transgender">trans</a> people, which they found had shaped broader perceptions of marginalized communities.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_forms">Other forms</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Strategic_intersectionality">Strategic intersectionality</h4></div>

Marie-Claire Belleau has called for "strategic intersectionality" in order to foster cooperation between feminisms of different ethnicities.<a href="#cite_note-Belleau_2007-73">[73]</a>: 51 She refers to different nat-cult (national-cultural) groups that produce different types of feminisms. Using the <a href="Culture_of_Quebec" title="Culture of Quebec">Québécois</a> nat-cult as an example, Belleau says that many nat-cult groups contain infinite sub-identities within themselves, saying that there are endless ways in which different feminisms can cooperate by using strategic intersectionality, and that these partnerships can help bridge gaps between "dominant and marginal" groups.<a href="#cite_note-Belleau_2007-73">[73]</a>: 54 Belleau argues that, through strategic intersectionality, differences between nat-cult feminisms are neither essentialist nor universal, but should be understood as resulting from socio-cultural contexts. Furthermore, the performances of these nat-cult feminisms are also not essentialist. Instead, they are strategies.<a href="#cite_note-Belleau_2007-73">[73]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transnational_intersectionality">Transnational intersectionality</h4></div>

<a href="Postcolonial_feminism" title="Postcolonial feminism">Postcolonial feminists</a> and <a href="Transnational_feminism" title="Transnational feminism">transnational feminists</a> have criticized intersectionality as a concept emanating from WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic)<a href="#cite_note-WEIRD_2010-74">[74]</a> societies that unduly universalizes women's experiences.<a href="#cite_note-Herr2014-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-KurtisAdams2015-76">[76]</a> Postcolonial feminists have worked to revise Western conceptualizations of intersectionality that assume all women experience the same type of gender and racial oppression.<a href="#cite_note-Herr2014-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-Transnational_Psychology-77">[77]</a> <a href="Shelly_Grabe" title="Shelly Grabe">Shelly Grabe</a> coined the term transnational intersectionality to represent a more comprehensive conceptualization of intersectionality. Grabe wrote, "Transnational intersectionality places importance on the intersections among gender, ethnicity, sexuality, economic exploitation, and other social hierarchies in the context of empire building or imperialist policies characterized by historical and emergent <a href="Global_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Global capitalism">global capitalism</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Grabe2012-78">[78]</a>

Both Postcolonial and transnational feminists advocate attending to "complex and intersecting oppressions and multiple forms of resistance".<a href="#cite_note-Herr2014-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-Transnational_Psychology-77">[77]</a>

Vrushali Patil argues that intersectionality ought to recognize transborder constructions of racial and cultural hierarchies. About the effect of the state on identity formation, Patil says: "If we continue to neglect cross-border dynamics and fail to problematize the nation and its emergence via transnational processes, our analyses will remain tethered to the spatialities and temporalities of colonial modernity."<a href="#cite_note-Vrushali-79">[79]</a>

Chandra Mohanty discusses alliances between women throughout the world as intersectionality in a global context. She rejects the western feminist theory, especially when it writes about global women of color and generally associated "third world women". She argues that "third world women" are often thought of as a homogeneous entity, when, in fact, their experience of oppression is informed by their geography, history, and culture. When western feminists write about women in the global South in this way, they dismiss the inherent intersecting identities that are present in the dynamic of feminism in the global South. Mohanty questions the performance of intersectionality and relationality of power structures within the US and colonialism and how to work across identities with this history of colonial power structures.<a href="#cite_note-Mohanty_1984-80">[80]</a>

This is elaborated on by Christine Bose, who discusses a global use of intersectionality which works to remove associations of specific inequalities with specific institutions while showing that these systems generate intersectional effects. She uses this approach to develop a framework that can analyze gender inequalities across different nations and differentiates this from an approach (the one that Mohanty was referring to) which, one, paints national-level inequalities as the same and, two, differentiates only between the global North and South. This is manifested through the intersection of global dynamics like economics, migration, or violence, with regional dynamics, like histories of the nation or gendered inequalities in education and property education.<a href="#cite_note-Bose_2012-81">[81]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

Intersectionality has been applied in many fields from politics,<a href="#cite_note-Hancock_2007-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Holvino_2010-83">[83]</a> education<a href="#cite_note-McCall_2005-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cooper_1892-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones_2003-84">[84]</a> healthcare,<a href="#cite_note-Kelly_2009-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Viruell-Fuentes_et_al_2012-86">[86]</a> and employment, to economics.<a href="#cite_note-Ladson-Billings_Tate_1995-87">[87]</a> Scholars of intersectionality have also advocated for its use more widely.<a href="#cite_note-Cho,_Crenshaw_&_McCall_2013-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levine-Rasky_2011-88">[88]</a> Little good-quality quantitative research has been done to support or undermine the practical uses of intersectionality, owing to misapplication of theoretical concepts and problems in methodology.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer2021-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_violence">Domestic violence</h3></div>

Women with disabilities encounter more frequent domestic abuse with a greater number of abusers. Health care workers and personal care attendants perpetrate abuse in these circumstances, and women with disabilities have fewer options for escaping the abusive situation.<a href="#cite_note-Cramer_2010-89">[89]</a> There is a "silence" principle concerning the intersectionality of women and disability, which maintains an overall social denial of the prevalence of abuse among the disabled and leads to this abuse being frequently ignored when encountered.<a href="#cite_note-Chenoweth-90">[90]</a> This can exacerbate limited autonomy and social isolation of disabled individuals, and place women with disabilities in situations where further or more frequent abuse can occur.<a href="#cite_note-Cramer_2010-89">[89]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div>

Intersectionality in education involves considering multiple elements of peoples' identities to increase accessibility—such as language, learning style, and disabilities. Laura Gonzales and Janine Butler say that an intersectional approach can help decrease the impact of disadvantages in the learning environment.<a href="#cite_note-CF-91">[91]</a> For example, the research by Gonzales and Butler found benefits from incorporating bilingual delivery, adjustments for disability, and inclusion of marginalized subjects in their writing assignments.<a href="#cite_note-CF-91">[91]</a> Authors Collin Lamout Craig and Staci Maree suggest there are also benefits for intersectionality in aiding acknowledgment and understanding in academia.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a>

Within the institution of education, Sandra Jones' research on working-class women in academia takes into consideration meritocracy within all social strata, but argues that it is complicated by race and the external forces that oppress.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_2003-84">[84]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Employment">Employment</h3></div>

Intersectional approaches to employment may be implemented in different ways in different organizations. Within the UK charity sector, Ashlee Christoffersen identified five different conceptualizations of intersectionality. "Generic intersectionality" was observed in policy areas, where intersectionality was conceptualized as developing policies to be in everyone's universal interest rather than being targeted to particular groups. "Pan equality" was concern for issues that affected most marginalised groups. "Multi-strand intersectionality" attempted to consider different groups when making a decision, but rarely viewed the groups as overlapping or focused on issues for a particular group. "Diversity within" considered one main form of identity, such as gender, as most important while occasionally considering other aspects of identity, with these different forms of identity sometimes seen as detracting from the main identity. "Intersections of equality strands" considered the intersection of identities but no form of identity was seen as more relevant. In this approach it was sometimes felt that if one dealt with the most marginalized identity, the system would tend to work for all people. Christoffersen referred to some of these meanings given to intersectionality as "additive" where inequalities are thought of as being added to and subtracted from one another.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a>

In the United States, studies of the labor market suggest there are economic inequalities due to the intersections of race and gender, including for African American women.<a href="#cite_note-Browne_&_Misra_2003-59">[59]</a>: 506–507 In a book by Esther Chow and others, the authors write: "The impact of patriarchy and traditional assumptions about gender and families are evident in the lives of Chinese migrant workers, sex workers and their clients in South Korea, and Indian widows, but also Ukrainian migrants and Australian men of the new global middle class."<a href="#cite_note-Chow_2011-94">[94]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Healthcare">Healthcare</h3></div>

Intersectionality has been used as a critical framework in healthcare, such as in addressing issues of reproductive justice, where the intersection of race, class, and gender shapes access to healthcare and family planning resources for women of color. An intersectional lens reveals a disproportionate rate of maternal mortality among Black women in the United States. Black women experience a significantly higher rate of pregnancy-related deaths, despite controlling for insurance status, income, and education. Research has linked these disparities to structural racism and implicit bias within the healthcare system. Healthcare providers have been shown to cause an underestimation of Black patients’ pain and inadequate or delayed treatment, specifically in maternal care and pain management.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a>

People of color in general often experience differential treatment in the healthcare system. For example, in the period immediately after <a href="9/11" class="mw-redirect" title="9/11">9/11</a> researchers noted <a href="Low_birth_weight" title="Low birth weight">low birth weights</a> and other poor birth outcomes among Muslim and Arab Americans, a result they connected to the increased racial and religious discrimination of the time.<a href="#cite_note-Lauderdale_2006-97">[97]</a> Some researchers have also argued that immigration policies can affect health outcomes through mechanisms such as <a href="Stress_(biology)#Overview" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a>, restrictions on access to health care, and the <a href="Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">social determinants of health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Viruell-Fuentes_et_al_2012-86">[86]</a>

<a href="Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a>, such as food security, access to clean air and water, housing stability, and employment conditions, can also have significant impacts on health outcomes,<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> particularly for marginalized communities.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Environmental racism,<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> a form of systemic racism where communities of color disproportionately bear the burden of environmental hazards, contributes to elevated rates of asthma, cancer, and other chronic illnesses. Rising temperatures and natural disasters as a result of climate change also disproportionately impact populations with limited economic resources and restricted access to healthcare.

Historical medical exploitation are continuing to inform health disparities today. The <a href="Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study" title="Tuskegee Syphilis Study">Tuskegee Syphilis Study</a>, in which Black men were denied treatment for syphilis without their consent or knowledge, and the forced sterilization of Indigenous and Latina women, driven by the eugenics movement,<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> racial and colonial control, and targeting through welfare and public health programs,<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> are all examples of systemic medical abuse. These events have contributed to longstanding distrust in healthcare institutions among marginalized communities. Additionally, medical research has historically excluded people of color, women, and disabled individuals<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> from clinical trials, resulting in gaps in knowledge about how various treatments affect these populations. This underrepresentation persists in many areas of research and contributes to unequal health outcomes today.

<a href="Loretta_Ross" title="Loretta Ross">Loretta Ross</a> and the SisterSong Collective suggest that healthcare policies disproportionately affect Black, Indigenous, and Latina women, highlighting the importance of applying an intersectional lens in policy-making. This ensures that systematic disparities are identified and addressed to create equitable healthcare policies and resources for marginalized communities.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The <a href="Women's_Institute_for_Science%2C_Equity_and_Race" title="Women's Institute for Science, Equity and Race">Women's Institute for Science, Equity and Race</a> advocates for the disaggregation of data in order to highlight intersectional identities in all kinds of research.<a href="#cite_note-Ryssdal_2020-105">[105]</a> Additional organizations such as the National Black Women's Reproductive Justice Agenda,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> the Black Mamas Matter<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Alliance, and the Disability Justice Collective<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> also work to center intersectionality in health justice advocacy, public policy, and community-driven research efforts.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immigration">Immigration</h3></div>

The <a href="African_American_Policy_Forum" title="African American Policy Forum">African American Policy Forum</a> (AAPF) has advocated for an intersectional approach to immigration policy, considering factors such as race, marriage and gender. The AAPF says that immigrant women's lives are often threatened by abusive spouses who are already citizens, and yet such women cannot divorce their spouses for two years if they seek permanent resident status. According to the AAPF, the law currently includes "no exceptions for battered women who often faced the risk of serious injury and death on the one hand, or deportation on the other".<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Biases" class="mw-redirect" title="Biases">Biases</a> and <a href="Heuristics_in_judgment_and_decision-making" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics in judgment and decision-making">Heuristics in judgment and decision-making</a></div>

Researchers in psychology have incorporated intersection effects since the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-SQ-110">[110]</a> These intersection effects were based on studying the lenses of biases, heuristics, stereotypes, and judgments. Psychologists have extended research in psychological biases to the areas of cognitive and motivational psychology. What is found, is that every human mind has its own biases in judgment and decision-making that tend to preserve the status quo by avoiding change and attention to ideas that exist outside one's personal realm of perception.<a href="#cite_note-SQ-110">[110]</a> Psychological interaction effects span a range of variables, although person-by-situation effects are the most examined category. As a result, psychologists do not construe the interaction effect of demographics such as gender and race as either more noteworthy or less noteworthy than any other interaction effect. In addition, oppression can be regarded as a subjective construct when viewed as an absolute hierarchy.

Even if an objective definition of oppression was reached, person-by-situation effects would make it difficult to deem certain persons or categories of persons as uniformly oppressed. For instance, black men are stereotypically perceived as criminals, which makes it much more difficult for them to get hired for a job than a white man. However, gay black men are perceived as harmless, which increases their chances of getting employed and receiving bonuses, despite the fact that gay males are also socially disadvantaged. The stereotype of gay men as harmless helps black men transcend their reputation for criminality.<a href="#cite_note-Pedulla2014-66">[66]</a> Several psychological studies have likewise shown that possessing multiple oppressed or marginalized identities has effects that are not necessarily additive, or even multiplicative, but rather, interactive in complex ways.<a href="#cite_note-Remedios_2011-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fattoracci_2020-112">[112]</a>

One of the main issues that affects the research of intersectionality is the construct problem. Constructs are what scientists use to build blocks of understanding within their field of study.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> It is important because it gives us something to measure. As mentioned previously, it is incredibly difficult to define oppression and, specifically, the feeling of being oppressed and ways that different kinds of oppression may interact as a construct.<a href="#cite_note-GA-114">[114]</a> As psychology grows and changes its ability to define constructs, this research will likely improve.<a href="#cite_note-GA-114">[114]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remediation">Remediation</h3></div>

To provide sufficient preventive, redressive and deterrent remedies, judges in courts and others working in <a href="Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">conflict resolution</a> mechanisms take into account intersectional dimensions.<a href="#cite_note-Nissen_2023-115">[115]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_work">Social work</h3></div>

In the field of <a href="Social_work" title="Social work">social work</a>, proponents of intersectionality hold that unless service providers take intersectionality into account, they will be of less use for various segments of the population, such as those reporting domestic violence or disabled victims of abuse. According to intersectional theory, the practice of <a href="Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a> counselors in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> urging all women to report their abusers to police is of little use to <a href="Women_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Women of color">women of color</a> due to the history of racially motivated <a href="Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">police brutality</a>, and those counselors should adapt their counseling for women of color.<a href="#cite_note-Bent-Goodley_et_al-116">[116]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_fields">Other fields</h3></div>

Intersectionality has also been used in <a href="Critical_animal_studies" title="Critical animal studies">critical animal studies</a> and <a href="Ecofeminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecofeminist">ecofeminist</a> literature, particularly in considering how our treatment of animals and the natural environment has an impact upon people.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fox_2024-119">[119]</a> For example, factory farming can be understood not just as an issue of animal welfare but also as an issue of <a href="Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a>, workers' rights, and public health which may disproportionately impact marginalized communities and peoples.<a href="#cite_note-Fox_2024-119">[119]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Responses">Responses</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic">Academic</h3></div>

Many feminists have positively engaged with the idea of intersectionality. Black feminists, in particular, suggest that an understanding of intersectionality is a vital element of gaining political and social equity and improving the societal structures that oppress individuals.<a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson_2011-120">[120]</a> <a href="Beverly_Guy-Sheftall" title="Beverly Guy-Sheftall">Beverly Guy-Sheftall</a> says, "black women experience a special kind of oppression and suffering in this country which is racist, sexist, and classist because of their dual race and gender identity and their limited access to economic resources".<a href="#cite_note-Guy-Sheftall-121">[121]</a> Stephanie A. Shields says that each part of someone's identity "serve as organizing features of social relations, mutually constitute, reinforce, and naturalize one another". Shields says that one aspect cannot exist individually, rather it "takes its meaning as a category in relation to another category."<a href="#cite_note-IP-122">[122]</a>

Some scholars suggest intersectionality is often weaponized against other forms of feminism.<a href="#cite_note-intersectionality993-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Downing2018-10">[10]</a> Barbara Tomlinson, of the Department of Feminist Studies at <a href="University_of_California%2C_Santa_Barbara" title="University of California, Santa Barbara">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>, has been critical of the applications of intersectional theory to attack other ways of feminist thinking.<a href="#cite_note-intersectionality993-12">[12]</a> Downing says intersectionality, seen through the framework of <a href="Andrea_Dworkin" title="Andrea Dworkin">Andrea Dworkin</a>'s class-based <a href="Radical_feminism" title="Radical feminism">radical feminism</a>, focuses too much on group identities and interests over individuality, leading to simplistic analysis and inaccurate assumptions about how a person's values and attitudes are determined.<a href="#cite_note-Downing2018-10">[10]</a> <a href="Iris_Marion_Young" title="Iris Marion Young">Iris Marion Young</a> suggests that differences must be acknowledged in order to find unifying social justice issues that create coalitions that aid in changing society for the better.<a href="#cite_note-Carastathis-123">[123]</a> More specifically, this relates to the ideals of the <a href="National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a> (NCNW).<a href="#cite_note-Mueller_1954-124">[124]</a>

Scholar Jennifer Nash says that, using an <a href="Afro-pessimism_(United_States)" title="Afro-pessimism (United States)">Afropessimist</a> framework, intersectionality may flatten the unique experiences of blackness and gender by treating different forms of identity as equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-Nash_2018-125">[125]</a> Nash also criticizes the superficial use of intersectionality by some institutions without addressing systematic inequalities.<a href="#cite_note-Nash_2018-125">[125]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Utility">Utility</h3></div>

Among scholars, proponents of intersectionality cite its broad applicability and embrace of nuance, while its critics say it is overly complex or too broad.<a href="#cite_note-Davis_2008-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jibrin_2015-8">[8]</a> Sociologist <a href="Kathy_Davis_(sociologist)" title="Kathy Davis (sociologist)">Kathy Davis</a> says intersectionality's broad applicability and consideration of multiple factors makes it a useful critical tool: "It encourages complexity, stimulates creativity, and avoids premature closure, tantalizing feminist scholars to raise new questions and explore uncharted territory."<a href="#cite_note-Davis_2008-9">[9]</a>

Rekia Jibrin and Sara Salem suggest that because intersectional theory creates a unified but complex idea of anti-oppression politics, this creates difficulties achieving <a href="Praxis_(process)" title="Praxis (process)">praxis</a> and results in significant ambiguity in how the framework should be applied.<a href="#cite_note-Jibrin_2015-8">[8]</a> As it is based in <a href="Standpoint_theory" title="Standpoint theory">standpoint theory</a>, Lisa Downing says the focus on subjective experiences can lead to contradictions and the inability to identify common causes of oppression.<a href="#cite_note-Downing2018-10">[10]</a>

<a href="Brittney_Cooper" title="Brittney Cooper">Brittney Cooper</a> says that "intersectionality does not deserve our religious devotion" but that "as a conceptual and analytic tool for thinking about operations of power, intersectionality remains one of the most useful and expansive paradigms we have".<a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a> In responding to critics of intersectionality who find it to be incomplete, or argue that it fails to recognize the specificity of women's oppression, <a href="Chiara_Bottici" title="Chiara Bottici">Chiara Bottici</a> says that "there is something specific about the oppression of women and that in order to fight it you have to fight "all other forms of oppression".<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <a href="Cheryl_Townsend_Gilkes" title="Cheryl Townsend Gilkes">Cheryl Townsend Gilkes</a> and Joy James say there is value in focusing on the experiences of black women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins200044-30">[30]</a>

Patricia Hill Collins also argues that without <a href="Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical social theory</a>, intersectionality falls flat. She argues that the mission of intersectionality currently within academia is too broad as a theoretical project, leading to its meaning being diluted both by the left and the right.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> As a result, intersectionality needs to take a position as a critical social theory in order to further it as a discipline and as a theory that can be utilized to dismantle systematic oppression.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research">Research</h3></div>

Many recent academics, such as <a href="Leslie_McCall" title="Leslie McCall">Leslie McCall</a>, have argued that the introduction of the intersectionality theory was vital to sociology and that before the development of the theory, there was little research that specifically addressed the experiences of people who are subjected to multiple forms of oppression within society.<a href="#cite_note-McCall_2005-48">[48]</a>

There have been recent attempts to apply the intersectionality theory to research that involves disability, gender, and poverty. For example, Jacqueline Moodley and Lauren Graham<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> focused on the intersection of disabled, impoverished, South African men and women to find what effect different combinations of the characteristics and identities had on outcomes of education, income, and employment. Also, researchers have used data from the National Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, EEOC, and <a href="Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">Americans with Disabilities Act</a> (ADA) Research Project to explore the interactions among disability, gender, age, race, and employer characteristics and it connection to the outcome of workplace harassment.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a>

Others suggest that generating <a href="Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">testable predictions</a> from intersectionality theory can be complex.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bauer2021-13">[13]</a> Liam Kofi Bright, Daniel Malinsky,

and Morgan Thompson suggest a framework of <a href="Causal_graph" title="Causal graph">graphical causal modeling</a> to provide "<a href="Graphical_model" title="Graphical model">empirically testable interpretations</a> of intersectional theory" to address such concerns.<a href="#cite_note-Bright_2015-14">[14]</a>

An analysis of academic articles published through December 2019 found that there are no widely adopted quantitative methods to investigate research questions informed by intersectionality and provided recommendations on analytic best practices for future research.<a href="#cite_note-Guan_2021-15">[15]</a> An analysis of academic articles published through May 2020 found that intersectionality is frequently misunderstood when bridging theory into quantitative methodology.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer2021-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political">Political</h3></div>

Critics of intersectionality also say that it is used as a tool of <a href="Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a>. Cooper says: "To suggest as Puar does that intersectionality is a tool of a neoliberal agenda rather than a tool that works against it is a line of thinking that should be vigilantly guarded against."<a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2016-6">[6]</a> Jibrin and Salem suggest that, while intersectionality has radical origins, its ambiguities mean it has been embraced by neoliberal feminists, undermining its radical nature:<a href="#cite_note-Jibrin_2015-8">[8]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">Given the empirical examples presented, we are convinced that the rise of class domination in what we know as the neoliberal university creates the conditions for concepts like intersectionality to become diluted and commodified. By depoliticizing intersectionality neoliberal market regimes empty radical struggle of structural critiques and translate them into palatable (unthreatening) narratives of social justice, multiculturalisms.<a href="#cite_note-Jibrin_2015-8">[8]</a></blockquote>

Conservatives such as American conservative commentator <a href="Ben_Shapiro" title="Ben Shapiro">Ben Shapiro</a> suggest that intersectionality creates a "hierarchy of victimhood", where individuals are categorized as "members of a victim class by virtue of membership in a particular group".<a href="#cite_note-Coaston_2019-11">[11]</a>

On the international political scale, intersectional lenses have not been applied to the topic of human right laws. Gauthier de Beco found using an intersectional lens that people with disabilities that belong to racial or ethnic, gender, and age minorities lack suitable human rights.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3></div>

Philosopher <a href="Tommy_J._Curry" title="Tommy J. Curry">Tommy J. Curry</a> published several works suggesting intersectional feminism implicitly adopts, and thereby perpetuates, harmful stereotypes of Black men.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Curry says Crenshaw's intersectional model depends on second-wave feminist ideas, imported from subculture of violence theorists who argue that Black masculinity is compensatory and sexually predatory. In so doing, Curry says that the intersectional feminist concept of "<a href="Double_Jeopardy%3A_To_Be_Black_and_Female" title="Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female">Double Jeopardy</a>" is fundamentally mistaken because intersectionality is over-determined by feminist politics. Curry also says that Crenshaw's conclusions in Mapping the Margins rely on gender essentialism that erases Black male victims of intimate partner violence, sexual assault, and lethal violence.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class discrimination</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_reductionism" title="Class reductionism">Class reductionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Disability_justice" title="Disability justice">Disability justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Implicit_stereotype" title="Implicit stereotype">Implicit stereotype</a></li>

<li><a href="Kyriarchy" title="Kyriarchy">Kyriarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Matrix_of_domination" title="Matrix of domination">Matrix of domination</a></li>

<li><a href="Misogynoir" title="Misogynoir">Misogynoir</a></li>

<li><a href="Oppression_Olympics" title="Oppression Olympics">Oppression Olympics</a></li>

<li><a href="Polylogism" title="Polylogism">Polylogism</a></li>

<li><a href="Progressive_stack" title="Progressive stack">Progressive stack</a></li>

<li><a href="Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li>

<li><a href="Syndemic" title="Syndemic">Syndemic</a></li>

<li><a href="Womanism" title="Womanism">Womanism</a></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><div class="block-indent" style="padding-left: 2em;">Reprinted in: <cite id="CITEREFCrenshawGotandaPellerThomas1995" class="citation book cs1">Crenshaw, Kimberlé; Gotanda, Neil; Peller, Gary; Thomas, Kendall, eds. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/critica_xxx_1995_00_1144/page/357/mode/1up?view=theater">Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings that Formed the Movement</a>. New York: The New Press. pp. 357–384. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-56584-271-7</bdi>.</cite> </div>

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<li id="cite_note-Azhar_2021-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Azhar_2021_69-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAzharAlvarezFarinaKlumpner2021" class="citation journal cs1">Azhar, Sameena; Alvarez, Antonia R. G.; Farina, Anne S. J.; Klumpner, Susan (1 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/08861099211001460">"'You're So Exotic Looking': An Intersectional Analysis of Asian American and Pacific Islander Stereotypes"</a>. Affilia. 36 (3): 282–301. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F08861099211001460">10.1177/08861099211001460</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0886-1099">0886-1099</a>. <q>Coupled with these racialized stereotypes regarding the assumed higher education and wealth of APIs are coexisting stereotypes regarding their gender and sexuality. In American context, Asian women are often portrayed in overtly sexualized ways as the objects of desire for men, particularly white men (Sue et al., 2007). Conversely, Asian men are portrayed as effeminate, emasculated, weak, and sexually undesirable. [...] API sexuality is again shaped in ways that maintain the social and political dominance of white men.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCollins2019" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Patricia Hill (23 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv11hpkdj">Intersectionality as Critical Social Theory</a>. Duke University Press. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv11hpkdj">10.2307/j.ctv11hpkdj</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4780-0709-8</bdi>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv11hpkdj">j.ctv11hpkdj</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMoodleyand_Graham2015" class="citation journal cs1">Moodley, Jacqueline; and Graham, Lauren (3 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10130950.2015.1041802">"The importance of intersectionality in disability and gender studies"</a>. Agenda. 29 (2): 24–33. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10130950.2015.1041802">10.1080/10130950.2015.1041802</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1013-0950">1013-0950</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFShawChanMcMahon2012" class="citation journal cs1">Shaw, Linda R.; Chan, Fong; McMahon, Brian T. (1 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0034355211431167">"Intersectionality and Disability Harassment: The Interactive Effects of Disability, Race, Age, and Gender"</a>. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin. 55 (2): 82–91. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0034355211431167">10.1177/0034355211431167</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-3552">0034-3552</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBowleg2008" class="citation journal cs1">Bowleg, Lisa (1 September 2008). "When Black + Lesbian + Woman ≠ Black Lesbian Woman: The Methodological Challenges of Qualitative and Quantitative Intersectionality Research". Sex Roles. 59 (5): 312–325. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11199-008-9400-z">10.1007/s11199-008-9400-z</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-2762">1573-2762</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:49303030">49303030</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFde_Beco2020" class="citation journal cs1">de Beco, Gauthier (27 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13642987.2019.1661241">"Intersectionality and disability in international human rights law"</a>. The International Journal of Human Rights. 24 (5): 593–614. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13642987.2019.1661241">10.1080/13642987.2019.1661241</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1364-2987">1364-2987</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTommy_J._Curry2021" class="citation book cs1">Tommy J. Curry (2021). "Decolonizing the Intersection: Black Male Studies as a Critique of Intersectionality's Indebtedness to Subculture of Violence Theory". In Robert Beshara (ed.). Critical Psychology Praxis: Psychosocial Non-Alignment to Modernity/Coloniality. New York: Routledge. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003119678-11">10.4324/9781003119678-11</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-003-11967-8</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234091480">234091480</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCurry2018" class="citation book cs1">Curry, Tommy (2018). The Man-Not: Race, Class, Genre, and the Dilemmas of Black Manhood. Temple University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4399-1486-1</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFCarastathis2013" class="citation journal cs1">Carastathis, Anna (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259550036">"Basements and Intersections"</a>. Hypatia. 28 (4): 698–715. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fhypa.12044">10.1111/hypa.12044</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0887-5367">0887-5367</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24542081">24542081</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143824123">143824123</a> – via ResearchGate.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCarastathis2014" class="citation journal cs1">Carastathis, Anna (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263725959">"The Concept of Intersectionality in Feminist Theory"</a>. Philosophy Compass. 9 (5): 304–314. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fphc3.12129">10.1111/phc3.12129</a> – via ResearchGate.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCollins1990" class="citation web cs1">Collins, Patricia Hill (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061211050851/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/healthnet/WoC/feminisms/collins2.html">"Defining Black Feminist Thought"</a>. Women of Color Web. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/healthnet/WoC/feminisms/collins2.html">the original</a> on 11 December 2006.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBernroiderBornKulzGang2025" class="citation book cs1">Bernroider, Lucie; Born, Anthony; Kulz, Christy; Gang, Sung, eds. (2025). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003529729">Intersectionality and the City: Exploring Violence and Inequality in Urban Space</a>. <a href="Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003529729">10.4324/9781003529729</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781003529729</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCollinsBilge2020" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Patricia Hill; Bilge, Sirma (2020). Intersectionality (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-5095-3967-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHankivsky2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">Hankivsky, Olena (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170423171506/https://www.sfu.ca/iirp/documents/resources/101_Final.pdf">Intersectionality 101</a> (PDF). Vancouver, B.C.: Institute for Intersectionality Research & Policy, Simon Fraser University. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-86491-355-5</bdi>. Archived from the original on 23 April 2017.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Intersectionality" class="extiw external" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a> at Wikiquote</li>

<li> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intersectionality" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:intersectionality">intersectionality</a> at Wiktionary</li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/lse-player?id=2360">"Justice Rising: moving intersectionally in the age of post-everything"</a> (podcast). Public Lectures and Events. London School of Economics. 26 March 2014.</cite></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li>

<li><a href="Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li>

<li><a href="Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li>

<li><a href="Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attributes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li>

<li><a href="Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li>

<li><a href="Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Nationality or citizenship</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a>

<ul><li><a href="Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse</a></li>

<li><a href="Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li>

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<li><a href="Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li>

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<li><a href="Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul>

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